Epigraphy serves as a crucial source for understanding the historical dimensions of various regions, as it sheds light on the socio-economic and cultural aspects of the past. Inscriptions provide insights into the interactions between the locals and the external elements in a society, though the matter can vary depending on the location of inscriptions. For example, inscriptions found in mosques differ, as they are religious structures and primarily convey Islamic ideology, often inscribing words from the Quran and Hadith. The mosque structure became popular after the advent of Islam but architectural styles and methods of construction varied between regions.
The Mosque symbolises the presence of Islam and its followers. A distinctive feature of the ‘medieval’ mosques of Malabar was their proximity to the seashore. Malabar Coast, the south western coast of India presently located in the modern state of Kerala, India, has been actively engaged in maritime trade since the first century A.D. Most of the old mosques in Malabar are situated either on riverbanks or near the sea. This is likely because traders, who were the first to bring Islam to Malabar, preferred these locations. The advent of Islam in Malabar is attributed to its maritime connection, and it is believed that the ideology of Islam entered primarily through the Islamised Arab traders. An alternative narrative rooted in legend tells the conversion story of Cheraman Perumal, a local king and the sovereign monarch of the entire Malabar region, who heard about Islam from a group of people, converted into it, and then travelled to Arabia, leaving his kingdom behind, which led to the spread of Islam throughout Malabar (Shaykh Zainuddin Makhdum 2005, 29-32; Duarte Barbosa 1865, 102). While I do not undermine the conversion story of the local ruler, especially in the context of historical validity, I emphasise that it was through the Islamised Arab traders that the ideology of Islam spread in Kerala.
The presence of a mosque then was an essential part of the daily lives of Muslim traders, both local and those from afar, functioning not only as a place of worship but also as a shelter. In 1342 A.D., Ibn Battuta mentioned a mosque in Hili (Ezhimala) that functioned as a learning center, a place of worship, a shelter, and even provided free food to the poor (Ibn Battuta 1976, 185-86). Several inscriptions found within the mosques and their adjacent graveyards point to the earliest trade immigrants and advent of Islam in Malabar.
A closer examination of inscriptions found in the mosques reveals that the construction, renovation, and upkeep of these mosques were primarily undertaken by those involved in trade and commerce, particularly by ship-owning merchants known as Nakhuda (ship-owning merchants). The Mishkal (Mithqal) Mosque of Kuttichira, Kozhikode, was built by Nakhuda Mishkal, whom the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta mentioned during his visit to Malabar in the 1340s. An inscription from Parapil Muhyiud-Din’s Mosque in Kozhikode records its construction date as 1551 A.D. and its reconstruction in 1782 A.D. by Nakhuda Muhyiud Din (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy-1964-65 1986, 137). Another inscription found in Jami Mosque, Ponnani, dates its construction to 1549-50 A.D. and attributes it to one Khwaja Muhammed, one of the prominent Nakhuda (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy-1965-66 1989, 141). Moreover, an inscription from Jami Mosque, Paravanna, Kozhikode, mentions that the mosque was reconstructed by a merchant named Muhammed in 1688-89 (Ibid., 139). This practice can be traced back to the 13th century and continued until the 18th century (Ziyaud-Din A Desai 1989, 15). The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta also noted in 1343 A.D. that the mosque in Quilon was constructed by a merchant named Khwaja Muhadhdhab (Ibn Battuta 1976, 193).
Similarly, many gravestones adjacent to mosques provide insights into traders and merchants who came from distant lands to pursue trade, many of whom died and were buried in Malabar. These traders included merchants, and Nakhudas. Many gravestones dating back to the 13th century have been found in the graveyard of Parapalli mosque, located in Koyilandi Taluk of Kozhikode (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy-1965-66 1989, 138). An inscription on a headstone within the Jami Mosque in Paravanna, Kozhikode, records the death of a merchant named Khwaja Ibrahim, who arrived for business and died in 1484 A.D. Other gravestones document the death of Nakhuda Zainud Din in 1596 A.D and Nakhuda Kunj Musa in 1621 A.D (Ibid., 139). These inscriptions shed light on the earliest trade immigrants of Kerala.
Certain inscriptions point to the arrival of religious scholars from various regions of West Asia, indicating their significant role in the growth of Islamic ideology in the region. An inscription found in the Jami Mosque, Madayi, records the death of a great scholar and theologian named Abdu’r Rahman in 1274 A.D. Another inscription from the Dargah of Shaikh Mohammed in Kozhikode documents the death of saint Shaikh Mohammed in 1572 A.D., and yet another from Jami Mosque, Paravanna records the death of Muhammed as- Sindafuri, a learned theologian, in 1484 A.D. (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy-1965-66 1989, 64, 96, 88). When Ibn Battuta visited Malabar in the 1340s, he encountered individuals of diverse origins including a jurist at Eli (Ezhimala) who hailed from Mogdishu (Mogadishu, Somalia), the jurist of Jurfattan (Kannur) who was from Baghdad, and the Qazi of Panderani (Pantalayani Kollam) was from Oman. Similarly, the leader of Muslim merchants in Quilon (Kollam), known as Ala-ud-din al-Awachi (al-Awaji), hailed from Awah in Iraq and the city’s judge came from Qazwin near Tehran (Ibn Battuta 1976, 186, 188, 193).
Some inscriptions inside the mosques contain writings from the Quran, intended to preach to those who visited the mosque. This suggests that the visitors were primarily Arabic-knowing people of West Asian origin rather than the native people of Malabar, who were unfamiliar with the Arabic language at that time. The wall, facade and minber (pulpit) of Mosques were adorned with such beautiful calligraphies, often featuring verses from the Quran artistically inscribed on the historical monuments. Interestingly, the content of the calligraphy inscribed on the mosques of Malabar was not limited to Quranic verses, and quotes from Hadith, it also included historical information. Mithqal (Mishkal) mosque of Kuttichira, Kozhikode, for instance features words from the Quran and Hadith that speak on the benefits of visiting the mosque (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy 1986, 136). An inscription on the wooden plank in the Jami Mosque, Kasarkod, tells the story of a group of people who travelled to propagate Islam and build mosques. It mentions that Malik bin Dinar, along with Sharaf bin Malik and few others, came to India and built the mosque in Kancharkot (Kasarkod) in 2 A.H. (642 A.D.), with one of them also appointing as Qadi (judge of Islamic Jurisprudence) (Indian Archaeology 1990-91-A Review 1995, 89; G.S Khwaja 1999, 54-56). The analysis of Quranic verses inscribed on the wall of these mosques and the calligraphic style of writing, which was new to the region, indicates that those skilled in the script were not local to Malabar, because the people of Malabar were unaware of it. This points to the cosmopolitan nature of Muslim life in Malabar’s past.
Conclusion
The mosque inscriptions clearly demonstrate that traders and ship-owners or Nakhudas from West Asia played a crucial role in facilitating the trade between Kerala and West Asia. This interaction not only promoted the exchange of goods but also facilitated the spread of Islam and the arrival of Islamic scholars in the region. Additionally, these traders were involved in the construction and renovation of mosques in Malabar. Consequently, inscriptions in mosques and graveyards provide valuable religious and historical information into the ideology, ethnicity, class, and occupations of those associated with the earliest mosques in Malabar. Therefore, it is critical to highlight the nuances of maritime relations between West Asia and Malabar to understand the ideological exchanges that influence the Islamic thought in the region.
Bibliography
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Fareeda Farsana. E is pursuing her PhD at the Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University, India. Her research focuses on the maritime connection of Malabar with Indian Ocean littoral regions during medieval times. She has completed her Masters and M.Phil in History from the University of Hyderabad.
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