Τhe stereotype of rational men and emotional women in the Balkan peninsula and Cyprus during the late Medieval and early Modern periods (as explored in Constantinou and Meyer 2019) can be explored through art, particularly dedicatory portraits in churches and portable icons. In a period of constant wars between the Byzantines, Latins, Bulgarians, Serbs, Albanians, Mamelukes and Ottoman Turks (1204-1571) (Fine 1994; Hill 2010; Nicol 1988), as well as the plague pandemic and leprosy (Kostis 1995; Marien 2009; Miller and Nesbitt 2014; Nikolov; Tsiamis et all. 2011), a small number of portraits were created that depicted devotees expressing their feelings through gestures and expressions. These portraits can be categorized into at least three distinct groups: portraits that convey emotions through gestures, portraits that convey emotions through facial expressions, and a portrait that combines both gestures and facial expressions.
The first category of these portraits includes those in which emotions are expressed through gestures. Within the Holy Trinity Church of the Monastery of Sopoćani, Serbia, there is a depiction of Serbian king Stefan Uroš I from around 1263. In this scene, the king is introducing his son and heir, Stefan Dragutin, to the Virgin Mary while leaning on his shoulder. Along with them, the king's spouse, Helen, is also depicted, guiding their son Stefan Milutin with a gentle touch (Αdashinskaya 2020, 261-262, 612). In a 1343 fresco of the 24th oikos of the Akathist Hymn, located within the Dečani Monastery, Serbia, King Stefan Uroš IV Dušan is laying his hand on the head of his young son, Uroš, while his wife Helen is touching his shoulder (fig. 1) (Todić and Čanak Medić 2005, 368; Kiltzanidou 2018, 87-88, 108). Through these depictions, the royal couples express their affection and signify their successors. In the Dečani Monastery, there exists another fresco that depicts Queen Helen as she touches the head of her young son. This portrait also includes the younger half-brother of her husband, Simeon Uroš Palaiologos (Αdashinskaya 2020, 266, 277). In a family portrait of Serbian aristocrats located in the church of Saint Nicholas in Psača, North Macedonia, which was created between 1358-1360 or 1365-1371, Ozra and Vladislava are depicted touching the heads of two younger boys who are standing in front of them (fig. 2). This act symbolizes love, care, and tenderness. It is believed that Ozra was the grandmother and Vladislava the mother of the two children (Kiltzanidou 2018, 106-110; Rasolkosta-Nikolovska 1995, 39, 43-51).
In the church of Panagia Kera in Kritsa Mirabello, Lasithi, Crete, Greece (mid-14th century) (fig. 3) (Gerola 1993, n. 50 p. 339), and in the portable icon of Christ with angels from the church of Panagia Chrysaliniotissa in Nicosia, Cyprus (today Byzantine Museum of Nicosia) (c. 1356) (fig. 4) (Bitha 2012, 195-197; Weyl Carr 1996, 599-607), parents are depicted praying with one hand while touching the head of their young deceased daughter with the other, presenting them in an effort to seek the salvation of their souls. Based on the placement of the mother of the girl, Euphemia, on the right side of the portable icon of Cyprus, it can be presumed that she was the one who motivated the contribution. The inscription that accompanied her daughter Maria is of particular interest, as it indicates that she passed away as a virgin. There is a comparable portable icon that has survived to this day in Cyprus, which is currently housed in the Byzantine Museum of Nicosia (second half of the 14th century) (fig. 5) (Weyl Carr 1996, 604). This has led to the question of whether there existed other similar portable icons that mothers donated in memory of their deceased daughters on the island.
A portrait in the church of Taxiarches Metropoleos in Kastoria, Greece, dated 1428/1429, depicts a father leaning on his deceased son Manuel's shoulder in a manner that suggests he is embracing him (fig. 6) (Brooks 2011-2012, 326-327; Kiltzanidou 2018, 142-145, 191; Subotić 2014, 252-261). Another donor, Theodora, was captured in a portrait touching the shoulder of her daughter Dragana in the Kremikovtsi Monastery of Saint George located in Kremikovtsi, Bulgaria, c. 1493 (fig. 7). The portrait also includes her husband and young son along with Bishop Kalavit of Sofia. It is believed that the couple's children perished due to a disease, possibly the plague, in August 1493 (Garidis 2007, 118; Kuneva 2022, 58-61). Eudocia Strevlou is grieving the loss of her three children due to the plague, alongside her official husband Nicholaos Bardoane in the church of Saint Nicholas in Phountoukli, Rhodes, Greece, in the year 1497/1498, according to a relevant dedicatory inscription. The couple is depicted with Christ Pantocrator in the eastern niche of the church, with Christ placing his left hand on Eudocia's head as a gesture of comfort (fig. 8). The children are portrayed in the western niche (Mastrochristos 2019, 181-193; Semoglou 1995, 6-7).
In the subcategory of portraits featuring donors who express their emotions through gestures, there are depictions of devotees holding hands. There is a now fragmentary portrait of a Serbian aristocratic family from the 15th century located in the church of Saints Constantine and Helen in Ohrid, North Macedonia. The female donor is depicted holding her deceased son Tomko by the hand while placing her deceased daughter in front of her to watch over her. In addition, the mural also depicts her deceased husband John (Ćorović-Ljubinković 1951, 177-184; Kiltzanidou 2018, 134-138; Subotić 1971). At the south portico of the church of Panagia Hodigitria (Afentiko) in the Monastery of Vrontochi in Mystras, Greece (14th century), there is the fragmentary portrait of two women in western dresses who are holding hands (fig. 9). The depiction is believed to be representing the feeling of love or guidance (Brooks 2002, 45, 76-77, 341-342; Kiltzanidou 2021, 13-14; Kiltzanidou 2023, 269-282). It is also reminiscent of the nun Theodoulis-Theodora Paleologina Synadene holding her daughter, nun Euphrosyne, by the wrist to direct her towards the Virgin Mary in the typikon of the Monastery of Bebaias Elpidos (Oxford Lincoln College, MS Gr. 35, F. 11r) (1330-1340) (Drpić 2014, 924-925; Kiltzanidou 2023, 272; Spatharakis 1976, 190 et seq.). It is possible, though, that the portrait could be associated with the representation of a Byzantine court ritual or the depiction of a dance. In Ambrogio Lorenzetti's fresco entitled "The Effects of Good Administration" in the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena, Italy (1337-1340), female figures are depicted holding hands to dance (Kiltzanidou 2023, 272). Furthermore, the church of Saint George (or Panagia) at Voila in Sitia Lasithi, Crete, Greece (1518) features a depiction of the Venetian Salamon family donors, where the male donor is holding his wife by the shoulder, while the female devotee holds their young son by the hand while they are dancing (fig. 10) (Gerola, 1993, n. 54 p. 339; Kiltzanidou 2023, 272 footnote 1312, 759-760).
A distinct representation that falls under this category is the portrait of little Paraskevi with her parents and older brother in the church of Saint Paraskevi in Monodentri, Ioannina, Greece, dating back to 1414 (fig. 11). This portrait is unique, as it depicts the young girl pulling on her father's cloak to get his attention and play with him. The portrait also shows the special affection that her official father, Michael Therianos, had for his little daughter. Acheimastou-Potamianou (2003, 240), believes that the young girl is frightened because of the solemnity of the moment. She seems to be asking for her father's protection while also trying to catch his attention. According to tradition, Paraskevi was ill and was cured by a miracle, after which she became a nun Acheimastou-Potamianou (2003, 231, 234-242).
The second category encompasses portraits that depict devotees expressing their emotions through their facial expressions. An example of such a portrait can be found in the church of Saint George in Pološko, North Macedonia, dated 1343-45 (fig. 12). In this family portrait, the donor, the noble nun Marina-Maria, is depicted holding a model of the church. Her eyebrows are trembling, indicating that she is crying over her deceased son, Jovan Dragušin, who is depicted on the right side of the portrait, next to his living wife. Dragušin's son is depicted in front of his grieving grandmother (Kiltzanidou 2018, 76-84; Maksimović and Maksimović, 65-66; Pavlović 2015, 107-118). In a niche of the church of Panagia tis Asinou in Nikitari, Cyprus (13th-14th century), a Latin female donor is also depicted with trembling eyebrows (fig. 13). She is shown in an upright kneeling posture to the right of the Virgin Mary, along with her husband and son. Though some have speculated that the black veil she wears relates to the mourning for the fall of Acre (1291), this opinion is not widely accepted today (Christoforaki 1999, 15-17; Stylianou and Stylianou 1997, 137, 140, 426). Her sad expression may be attributed to some other unknown reason.
The portrait of Perislava/Vladislava in the church of Saint Nicholas Magaliou in Kastoria, Greece (1504/1505), belongs to the third category of portraits which combine gestures and facial expressions (fig. 14). The portrait depicts the Slavic donor with her facial features conveying her sorrowful state (lowered eyebrows, small eyes), as she wipes her tears with a handkerchief in mourning of her son, Aktasis. Earlier, E. Drakopoulou asserted that the woman was pulling her hair as an indication of mourning (Drakopoulou 1997, 133). Today, the portrait is not maintained in a satisfactory condition. It is interesting to note that her son's Turkish name suggests that the woman was married to a Christianized Turk named Alexis, whose name is still preserved in the church (Drakopoulou 1997, 112, 119, 132-133; Garidis 2007, 99-100; Kiltzanidou 2018, 152-157; Orfanidis 2017, 219-235).
In conclusion, during a span of over three hundred years of ongoing conflicts and the devastating impact of the Black Death and leprosy, men and women of the Balkans and Cyprus donated dedicatory portraits in churches and portable icons. These works of art conveyed the emotions of the devotees primarily through gestures, and to a lesser extent through their facial expressions. The vast majority of such depictions are attributed to women, who are often identified as the main donors of the donations. These women frequently express their emotions and sentiments towards their children, whether they are living or deceased. Some portraits do not hesitate to depict these women crying. On the contrary, the depictions of male donors are limited to just six portraits, out of which only four are credited to their own initiative. These portraits depict men expressing their emotions mainly in the wake of their children's demise. These raise the question of why women tend to be more expressive with their emotions while men often avoid showing their feelings. Is it societal norms that promote men to be rational and women to be emotional? Was the woman's position as a mother and caretaker of the household conducive to her ability to convey both feelings of love and affection towards her children, as well as the sorrow associated with their loss? Do men have a tendency to conceal their emotions of affection and grief in order to avoid being perceived as vulnerable or ridiculous? It's plausible that societal norms may have a significant influence on this, where men are expected to be rational and women to be emotional. However, it's worth noting that there are a few exceptions, as in the case of certain males who do express emotions, indicating that not everyone adheres to these stereotypes.
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Mr. Georgios Tsigaras, Professor of History of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Art at the Democritus University of Thrace, and Mr. Athanasios Semoglou, Professor of Byzantine Archaeology at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, for their unwavering support and invaluable guidance throughout the past few years. Furthermore, I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to Professor Mati Meyer from The Open University of Israel, Professor Lisa Perfetti from The College of Wooster and Professor Helen Hills from University of York for their invaluable recommendations of highly significant works related to gender and stereotypes. Lastly, I would also like to express my appreciation to Professor Peter N. Stearns of George Mason University for enlightening conversation about stereotypes that have prevailed from ancient times till the present era.
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Katerina Kiltzanidou was born in Thessaloniki, Greece in 1992. She pursued her undergraduate studies from 2010 to 2014 and postgraduate studies from 2015 to 2018 at the Department of History and Archaeology of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. She completed her PhD thesis from 2019 to 2023 at the Department of History and Ethnology of the Democritus University of Thrace, with scholarships from the Melina Merkouri Foundation (2019-2020) and the State Scholarship Foundation (IKY) (2022-2023). In November 2023, Katerina started her postdoctoral research at the same university. Her research primarily focuses on late Byzantine and early Post-Byzantine art, dedicatory portraits and inscriptions, female studies, and gender studies. She has contributed to this field of research by publishing articles and blogposts and participating in international scientific meetings, conferences, and workshops.
Email: kkiltzanidou@gmail.com